new illuminati: ancient humans

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Wednesday, 23 September 2015

Humans LOST DNA as they evolved: Early species had the equivalent of thousands more genes than we do now

Humans LOST DNA as they evolved:

Early species had the equivalent of thousands more genes than we do now

Early human species are thought to have lost DNA as they migrated around the globe and their populations became constrained. Neanderthals, like the one illustrated above, and Denisovans had around 104,000 base pairs in their DNA that are now abscent from the genomes of modern humans

Geneticists analysed the DNA of 125 human populations around the world
They then estimated how much DNA has been lost since we split from apes
They calculated humans have lost 40.7 million base pairs as we evolved
The study also found large segments of DNA from an extinct early human species called Denisovans in the genomes of people from south Pacific

By Richard Gray

Humankind likes to believe it sits at the top of the evolutionary tree because of its complexity, but our success may be down to us actually losing some of our DNA.

Geneticists have discovered that modern humans actually possess far less genetic information in our cells than their ancestral cousins. They estimate since early humans split from the common ancestor we shared with our closest living relatives, chimpanzees, we have lost 40.7 million base pairs.

Scientists have created the most detailed map of human genetic diversity by sampling DNA from 125 populations round the world, shown on the map above. They found indigenous people from the South Pacific had a high levels of a section of DNA from an extinct human species, the Deniosvans, shown by the pies above

These basic biochemical units are what make up DNA strands and group together to encode genes.

Researchers say around half of these genetic sequences appear to have been repeated sections of DNA, but 27.96 million base pairs lost were unique.

This could have been the equivalent of thousands of genes, although much of the DNA could have had no function.

HUMANS HAVE 'PRIMATIVE' HANDS

Humans like to think of themselves as the peak of the evolutionary tree, honed by millions of years of evolution that sets us apart from our closest animal cousins.

But research suggests one part of our body – our hands – are actually more primitive than those of chimpanzees.

Analysis of the anatomy of the hands of living and extinct apes has revealed that human hands have actually evolved little since we shared a common ancestor with chimpanzees.

Chimps by contrast have developed elongated fingers to help make them better suited to life in the trees.

Human hands have retained their relatively long thumbs in relation to their index fingers, making them much more similar to the appendages of gorillas.

The dexterity of the human hand has long been believed to be what sets us apart from our animal cousins and lies behind our success as a species.

It was also long thought that our use of tools was partly responsible for our unique hands.

The new findings, however, suggest the proportions of the human hand appears to have been in place long before we separated from chimpanzees and bonobos, from the genus Pan, around five million years ago.

By analysing the DNA of 125 human populations around the world, the scientists have produced the most detailed map of human genetic diversity yet produced.

They found humans appear to have lost around 15.8 million base pairs after separating from apes early in our evolutionary history in Africa, around 13 million years ago.

As humans then dispersed and spread around the world, they shed a further 12.16 million unique pieces of DNA.

This suggests trimming down sections of DNA have been just as important in human evolution as the reordering and development of new genes has.

Writing in the journal Science, the researchers, led by Professor Evan Eichler, a geneticist at the University of Washington in Seattle, said dramatic losses in human population after leaving Africa played a role in the loss of much of this DNA.

They said: 'The breadth of the dataset allowed us to reconstruct the structure and content of the ancestral human genome prior to human migration and subsequent gene loss.

'As expected, Africans were more likely to show evidence of these ancestral sequences compared to non-African populations, as the latter have experienced more population bottlenecks and thus retained less of the ancestral human diversity.'

The human genome has around three billion base pairs, which reside in 23 chromosomes in the heart of almost every cell in our body.

The average gene in the human genome is around 765 base pairs long, meaning humans could have lost the equivalent of up to 37,000 genes since splitting from our ape cousins.

The international team of researchers, from 39 different institutes, analysed the DNA of 236 people from 125 different human populations.

They then compared these to the geneomes from chimpanzees, organgutans and ancient human species like the Neanderthals and Denisovans.

Their results have helped to highlight the complexity of human migration around the world, as our ancestors at times interbred with other human species or were forced to indulge in inbreeding.

The map above shows the 125 populations sampled by the researchers for the study and how they relate to each other, as illustrated by the coloured markers

The researchers found a segment of DNA in the genome of Denisovans that is duplicated (shown left) and this appears to have occurred around 440,000 years ago before interbreeding occurred with modern humans in Oceanic populations that are indigenous to the South Pacific islands

They focused particularly on sections of DNA known as 'copy number variants' – alterations which lead to a variation in the number of copies of DNA sections.

They found there were large duplicated segment of DNA from the extinct Denisovans can now be found in Oceanic populations, such as the islands of the South Pacific.

This suggests there was a period of intense interbreeding between the Denisovans and modern humans around 40,000 years ago.

The researchers estimate that the duplicated segment of DNA, which is found in the Denisovan chromosome 16, occured around 440,000 years ago.

They found Neanderthals and Denisovans had around 104,000 base pairs in their genomes that are not found in modern humans.

However, modern humans have around 33,300 base pairs not found in Neanderthals or Denisovans, suggesting these extinct species had also lost significant portions of DNA.

This genetic tree shows the relationships between different human populations according to the deletions found in their genomes. The extinct Neandethals and Denisovans sit far out on their own, as shown above

Studying these differences could also help to provide clues to how modern humans managed to survive and flourish while other species of human died out.

Surprisingly, the results also suggest that DNA deletions are more reflective of selection in our evolutionary history, whereas duplications of DNA sequences highlight genetic subpopulations.

Writing in the journal, the researchers said: 'Both deletion and duplication analyses consistently distinguish African, Oceanic, and Amerindian human populations.

'Africans show the greatest deletion and duplication diversity and have the lowest rate of fixed deletions with respect to ancestral human insertion sequences.

'Oceanic and Amerindian, in contrast, show greater copy number variation differentiation, likely as a result of longer periods of genetic isolation and founder effects.

'Among the Oceanic, the Papuan–Bougainville group stands out in sharing more derived copy number variation alleles (genes) in common with Denisova, including a massive interspersed duplication that rose to high frequency over a short period of time.'

The researchers found we have lost around 40.7 million base pairs from our genomes since early human ancestors split from apes around 13 million years ago.

See : Global diversity, population stratification, and selection of human copy number variation

From the Daily Mail @ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3187857/Humans-LOST-DNA-evolved-Early-species-equivalent-thousands-genes-now.html

For more information about (terrestrial) human origins see http://nexusilluminati.blogspot.com/search/label/human%20origins

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Wednesday, 29 July 2015

Ancient Humans and Optical Illusions: The Challenge of Tracing Human Origins

Ancient Humans and Optical Illusions:

The Challenge of Tracing Human Origins

By Tashi Javed

If tracing this lineage from our earliest ancestor seems inconsistent or spotty, that’s because it is. We have a makeshift model of human history that had been cobbled together by geneticists, archaeologists, anthropologists and biologists. Finding common ground and an overall consensus among these different disciplines makes finding the truth even harder. Looking back at human history is an optical illusion; new archaeological discoveries are always challenging what we already know, and constant revisions are being made.

In 2013, a major find would cause further controversy within the already complex grouping of hominids. In Dmanisi, Georgia, an archaeological dig was under way. After finding a series of four similar-looking skills during the dig, the fifth one looked irregular. This skull had a small braincase, large teeth and a powerful jaw, but judging by the skull’s shape and structure, it must have been attached to a long-limbed, human-like body, not a short-limbed, muscular body like Australopithecus. An apelike skull attached to a human body are features that never co-existed prior to this discovery.

This has led scientists to believe that the Homo Subspecies of Ergaster, Erectus, Rudolfensis, Habilis and so forth, may have actually been one species that simply looked different - much like the varying appearances of different races we encounter today. This find has been known as “Skull 5”, and has already caused a debate about how the homo species should be classified. This finding will spawn a debate until a newer find is unearthed and new data is presented. These revisions will continue until we either run out of fossils or more advanced technology allows us to shed light on this ongoing mystery.

The Dmanisi early Homo cranium, ‘Skull 5’. Photo courtesy of Georgian National Museum

The scientific dating of species that have been found is volatile by nature. Lucy, the Australopithecus specimen went through several date revisions since she was found. Anthropologist Susan Martinez outlines the numerous times Lucy has been re-dated to fit with contemporary theories. In the 1950’s following Lucy’s discovery, she was estimated to be at least 500,000 years old. This number changed in the 1970’s to at least a million years old. After new discoveries in Ethiopia, that number jumped to two million.

The wide estimates between these broad and sweeping figures are known as scatter in archaeological terms. A species known as Petralona Man is said to have existed between 70,000 to 700,000 years ago. Another known as Morocco Man was first estimated to be 40,000 years old, until further tests actually placed him at 125,000 years old. The prevalence of scatter across these finds makes it no wonder why our lineage is so difficult to trace. How is it that these figures come to be so slippery and hard to pin on a timeline?

The skeletal remains of ‘Lucy’ (Australopithecus). Image source: Wikipedia

The techniques used to calculate the date of a fossil aren’t perfect and are subject to error. A technique known as radiocarbon dating works by measuring how levels of carbon have dropped in a bone fragment or artifact over time. Exposure from the sun on a piece of bone, for example, accumulates nitrogen in the bone fragment. This nitrogen turns into carbon-14, which acts as a measuring guide for how old an object is. Over time, carbon-14 levels decrease – these levels serve as a yardstick for the age of the object. This technique is most accurate up to a period of 60,000 years – anything longer and results are often unreliable.

The level of carbon decay may have varied across different time periods in the past. Some species may have had less exposure to sun, or climate change may have influenced the amount of carbon in the atmosphere. The higher the fossil is in the surface of the Earth, the more likely it comes into contact with weather, animals and other agents. Even exposure to coal can contaminate the carbon levels in a finding, yielding highly different results. A finding in France known as the Fontechevade Man has been estimated to be between 40,000 to 800,000 years old just based on readings of nitrogen levels alone. Scientists have even resorted to using different levels of dating to counterbalance the levels of scatter that may occur from carbon dating.

One technique known as faunal dating looks at the animal remains of species that may have existed millions of years ago. Traces of these species can let us know how old an object is, but can yield confusing results. Susan Martinez offers a good example: We have estimated Trilobytes (an ancient crab-like species) to have existed at least 550 million years ago – the Cambrian era. But any finding with traces of Trilobytes is said to be from the Cambrian era. How do we know Trilobytes are 550 million years old? Because Trilobytes existed 550 million years ago.

This argument goes in circles and explains why a technique like faunal dating is unreliable in reading human fossils we encounter. We use fossils to date rocks, or rocks to date fossils – we are left with only relative dates of which species lived when. These are problems that arise when trying to date these fossil finds. Each new find re-writes history, which is written again, further confusing our already obscure and complicated origins.

The Moab Man

In 1971, archaeologist Lin Ottinger was digging in the Moab region in the state of Utah, an area known for heavy mining operations. He came across a patch of dark brown stained dirt over the otherwise white colored sand. He began to dig, until his knife came across something solid. Thinking it was a piece of leftover mining equipment, he continued to dig until he came across a fragment of human bone. The problem was the six feet of solid rock he was digging through to reach the specimen was estimated to be at least 100 million years old.

Some bone fragments from ‘Moab Man’. They are stained green by the copper content of the soil. Image source.

There is a term in archaeology known as an in situ finding. “In situ”, is a Latin term meaning “in position”, the idea being that a finding has never been moved, adjusted or manipulated from its original position upon discovery. Given the age of the rocks, the specimen would have to be just as old. Knowing that this finding would be controversial but important, he left the artifact as he found it, only uncovering what would be sufficient for further research.

Ottinger brought this discovery to the attention of Dr. Marwitt, professor of anthropology at the University of Utah, who then assembled a small team to continue research. They discovered another skeleton, exactly the same age as the first, but with fragments missing, most likely due to mining. Scattered around the region were fragments of bone and teeth, believed to be from the existing two skeletons. Further research found that the first skeleton had been buried in a kind of fetal posture - a position similar to that used by native tribes during burial ceremonies. This discovery has been known as the “Moab Man”, and has strangely been buried under the rug by the scientific community, who has refused to age date the bones.

The Moab Man has been dismissed as an attempt by Christian fundamentalists to prove creationism and the idea that humans existed with dinosaurs. Putting religious debate aside for a moment, suppose that this finding really was as old as the dirt it was buried in. Would we not have to rewrite our entire understanding of human origins, stating that humans were at once anatomically modern, before devolving into Neandertals only to re-emerge as homo sapiens? A hoax? Probably not. But an anomaly? Yes. Even the most fervent of Christian fundamentalists would have a hard time digging through six feet of 100 million year old solid rock, buried under ten feet of sand, to implant an anatomically modern correct human skeleton, only to seal the rock and bury it again. This find is much to elaborate to be considered a hoax, by creationists or anyone else for that matter. Since its discovery, the Moab Man has been abandoned, with minimal exposure.

A second anomalous artifact was discovered in 1881 in the Red Crag region of England. Red Crag formations are large segments of rock that date back approximately 2-2.5 million years ago during the early Pleistocene Era. The biggest of these formations found in the Suffolk and Essex regions of England. They are given their name for their deep red pigmentation. These rocky deposits are among the oldest formations on Earth, and finding any trace of human interaction would raise attention.

Fossilized shell found by H. Slopes, appearing to show a face carved into the surface.

A geologist named H. Slopes, while digging within this ancient region came across a small, round fossilized shell, colored deep red with pigmentation after being embedded in the red stone for thousands of years. On the other side of the shell was a crude but unmistakeable engraving of a human face, depicting two round eyes, a triangular nose pointing downwards, and a thin mouth roughly in the shape of a smile. Similar Red Crag fossils when scratched on the surface show white underneath.

The shell was extremely brittle – it would be hard to imagine engraving its fragile surface. Had this fossil been any younger, the eyes, the triangular nose and mouth would have shown traces of white – the fossil’s original color being revealed after the red pigmentation had been cut through. Instead, the design of the face was engraved into the red stone, meaning the engraving had to occur at a time similar to when the rock was originally buried into the Earth; sometime during the early Pleistocene. Artwork and depictions of human faces were a feat unique to Cro Magnons. But Cro Magnons did not appear until the late Pleistocene, 60,000 years ago. This scenario hints at the possibility of Cro Magnons arriving much earlier than expected, or at least being present during the early Pleistocene. Another strange piece of the puzzle.

The above article is an extract from Chapter 2 of “The Human Anomaly”. For more information, click here.

From Ancient Origins @ http://www.ancient-origins.net/human-origins-science-opinion-guest-authors/optical-illusions-challenge-tracing-human-origins-002166

For more instances of suppressed archaeology see http://nexusilluminati.blogspot.com/search/label/forbidden%20archaeology